Amber has always been
attractive to craftsmen and traders. It must have been
the early Neolithic period when Lithuanian inhabitants
began to produce amberware and ornaments which they
traded with their immediate northern and southern
neighbours. Amber objects from the Neolithic Age are
found in Estonia, the districts of Novgorod and Tver,
Finland and Sweden. In the southern neighbourhoods raw
amber and amber goods are especially abundant in the
burial grounds of the Zlota culture in Poland.
In the Bronze Age the
Balts used amber as the main object to barter for
copper alloys. Its considerable quantities are located
in the zones of copper mines in Middle and
Southeastern Europe. To emphasize the importance of
amber trade, the researchers of prehistory coined a
special term - “Amber route”. The Bronze Age saw a
number of its ramifications. The principal amber route
began from the Baltic coast and led to the lower
Vistula. Using the Warta and the upper Oder or their
coastlines the amber route crossed Bohemia, Moravia
and reached the Danube. From there the route forked:
one branch went to Greece, Peloponnesus and Crete
(amber beads excavated in the burial grounds of the
Mycenae culture are dated to the period between 1600
and 1500 B. C.). Through the passes of the Alps, the
second branch went down to northern Italy. Another
amber route from the Baltic shores travelled overland
up to the Dnieper, then up its mouth to the Caucasus,
the eastern regions of the Black Sea and the
southwestern areas of the Caspian Sea (1). Amber
objects are found in Ossetia, Middle Caucasus.
Interregional amber traffic also reached Asia Minor.
In the burial grounds of Sernai (near Klaipeda,
Lithuania) was discovered a bronze statuette (dated to
1500-1000 B. C.) resembling a Canaanite god from Syria
- Palestine (2).
The old traditions of
amber trade are described by classical Greek authors
and researchers. Amber is mentioned in Homer's “Iliad”
and “Odyssey”, Herodotus' (490-480-425 B. C.)
works. Amber was also honoured an exhaustive account
after the journey of Pytheas of Massalia to the shores
of the Baltic Sea and the North Sea in around 325 B.
C.
During the period of the
Roman Empire amber became greatly valued and desired.
It also brought the Aistians (Balts) into the focus of
classical Roman writers and historians who then began
to describe their habitations, occupations and
customs. In his “Natural History” Pliny the Elder
(A. D. 23-79) writes that during the reign of Nero (A.
D. 37-68) a member of the equestrian order was sent to
the northern regions to procure the supply of amber to
decorate the arms of gladiators. According to him, it
was a distance of about six hundred Roman miles
between the center of amber source and Carnuntum (near
Vienna, on the right side of the Danube). He brought
back amber in such vast quantities that during the
days of gladiatorial contests the whole amphitheatre,
gladiators and servants were decorated with amber. The
largest piece of amber was 13 pounds in weight (4,2
kg). Pliny the Elder explains the passion for amber.
He says that instead of wearing neck-rings local women
wear amber as they count on its curative powers (it
was a widespread belief that amber helps to cure
thyroid and other throat diseases) and the magic of
its beauty. Whereas P. K. Tacitus (A. D.
55-58-117-120) states it more clearly and notes that
amber had long been part of things cast ashore until
Roman prosperity confered it a name.
In his work “Germania”
(A. D. 98), Tacitus mentions the Aistians (3) - “On
the coast to the right of the Suevian ocean, the
Aistians have fixed their habitation...” - and
describes them as collectors of amber; “... and
furthemore they explore the sea for amber, in their
language called “Glesum”, and are the only people
who gather that curious substance. It is generally
found among the shallows, sometimes on the shore.”
(4). He also notes that the Aistians do not use amber:
they collect its pieces, sell it raw and are
pleasantly surprised to be remunerated. Such Tacitus'
observations leave much room for doubt as the
above-mentioned facts attest a long history of the
tradition of amber. Moreover, the investigations of
the burial monuments of the Balts of the period
described by Tacitus suggest a versatile character of
the amber usage in the Baltic material culture. “We
cannot go along with Tacitus who says that at that
time the Aistians did not use amber, did not know its
value, and only the Romans made it an object of luxury”,
writes Vl. Katinas, the author of a comprehensive
study about the Baltic amber (5).
The ramifications of the
“Amber route” and the importance of trade between
the Balts and the barbarian cultures to the Baltic,
German and Slavic societies have been analysed and
discussed by different researchers from different
countries. K. Majewski, B. Bilinski contoured the
principal branches of the “Amber route”: 1) the
so-called Klodzko and 2) Morava forks. The first
branch was particularly used in the first century
under the reign of Flavians and Antonines (Nerva and
Trajan). From the metropolis in Pannonia the road
approached the town of Vindobona near the Danube,
thence it crossed the Klodzko pass and led to the
region of the present-day Vroclav and on to Kalisz
near the River Prosna. From there the traffic twisted
to the north towards the bend of the Wysla (the
district of Osielsk) and reached the Baltic Sea and on
to the land of amber in Semba. In the second century
A. D. under the reign of the dynasty of Antonines the
number of fights with the Marcomannians began to
increase, therefore, it was no longer safe to use the
Klodzko branch (as it led through the Marcomannic
lands). Then the Morava branch came into use. It began
in the town of Carnuntum in Pannonia near the Danube.
Then up its tributary Morava to the upper Oder as far
as the environs of Opole, thence it turned north
towards Kalisz. From Kalisz using the road of the old
Klodzko branch up to Semba.
During the first and
third centuries A. D. the “Amber route”, to put it
in modern terms, was an entire industry. Large
quantities of the Baltic amber have been excavated
along the amber route in Vroclav-Partynic, near the
Oder in Lower Silesia. It is assumed that the same
road must have been used to export animal fur and
skin, honey and wax to the Romans. Whereas from the
provinces of the Roman Empire came bronze, silver and
gold coins, brass and glass bowls, ceramics, glass and
enamelled beads, various fibulae decorated with brass
and enamel, and, most importantly, non-ferrous metals
- copper, zinc, tin, silver (Illus. 1). As is known,
the Baltic people had known how to obtain iron, the
main metal, from local bog ore at least since A. D.
10-40.
There have recently been
published a number of new studies about amber and the
amber trade with Romans. Polish researchers have
offered a number of more accurate derails of the “Amber
route” traffic (6). In Lithuania there have appeared
some statistical studies which discuss the spread of
amber in the burial monuments (7) in Lithuania
throughout the Old and Middle Iron Age.
There have also been
attempts to analyse the influence of the “Amber
route” to the development of the Baltic society and
to compare the Germanic people, as described by P. K.
Tacitus, with the Baltic community, its life and
customs (8).
A recent study “Corpus
der romischen Funde im europaischen Barbaricum.
Litauen”, written by M. Michelbertas, consists of a
comprehensive catalogue of Roman artefacts and a map
of find spots (9). It shows that the traders of the
Old Iron Age relied on rivers to reach the farthest
locations in Lithuania, and that enamelled and glass
beads, together with Roman coins (Illus. 2), comprise
the biggest part of Roman articles. Other goods - such
as fibulae, handbells, glass beakers or brass bowls
-account only for a small part of all imports.
Another fact which is
often overlooked in our archeological literature is
that amber was an important trade object (as much as
Roman articles were) not only in the Roman provinces
but also in the Baltic lands. A map drawn up by M.
Michelbertas demonstrates that amber ornaments,
together with Roman artefacts, were excavated in most
burial monuments in Lithuania. For example, the
cemetry of Dauglaukis which is attributed to the
culture of the lower reaches of the River Nemunas.
Dating to the Old Iron Age, this rich burial monument
manifests a versatile usage of amber in the daily life
of the Baits.
A 127 burial grouping of
Dauglaukis falls into three chronological groups which
encompass a period from 70 to 260 A. D. (70-150,
150-220, 220-260). Twelve Roman bronze sestertii were
located in ten graves in the cemetry of Dauglaukis.
Their biggest part is attributed to the dynasty of
Antonines: Antoninus Pius (138-161), Antoninus Pius
adopted successor Marcus Aurelius (161-180) and
Commodus (177-192) who was the last in the dynasty.
This consecutive order indicates active contacts
between the Dauglaukis community and the merchants
from the Roman Empire. It might seem that there should
have been coins of the Severan dynasty, however, it is
not so. Other Roman coins are attributed to the late
Roman emperors, e. g., there was found a bronze
sestertius of Gordian's III reign (238-244) (10).
The community of
Dauglaukis lived under the conditions of military
democracy. The stratification of society was based on
wealth and patriarchal system. Men's graves comprise
burial goods which abound in weapons and tools of
labour. A man was a leader in the family, household
and military. Whereas women's graves were mostly
furnished with ornaments, though some burials are
equipped with such household articles as awls, needles
and, in very rare cases, parts of spinning equipment.
It seems that a woman must have been confined to the
concerns of the household only.
Private property
determined the division of the community of Dauglaukis
into 3 classes: 1) “common”, 2) “well-to-do”,
and 3) “rich”. An apparent reflection of this
differentiation is an average number of burial goods
found in a grave of an individual. A “common”
tribal woman had 2.7 burial items, a “well-to-do”
woman possessed 7.5 articles, and a “rich” woman
owned even 14.4 burial goods. Similar finds come from
the graves of men: a “common” man had 2.8 items, a
“well-to-do” man possessed 5.1 burial goods, and a
“rich” man was equipped with 8. 5 burial items. It
is interesting that the well-to-do and rich members of
the Dauglaukis community owned the largest share of
amber - almost 75.3%. R. V. Sidrys has made a
statistical analysis of the amber finds in the cemetry
of Dauglaukis and confirmed a direct subordination
between amber and rich graves (11).
Grave 41 yielded 97
amber beads, pendants and other articles together with
pieces of raw amber (12). Amber was used for
decorations by everyone: men and women, girls and
boys. The biggest volume of amber was located in the
graves of women and girls (13). Amber beads were often
used to adorn necklaces (14). As a rule, amber was
used together with enamelled and glass beads,
sometimes with brass spirals (Illus. 3).
It is of interest to
note that no genuine amber necklace has been found so
far with the exception of the cemetries of Vidgiriai
and Plinkaigalis (15), dating to the end of the 5th
century and the beginning of the 6th century A. D.
R.V. Sidrys writes: “Amber must have had no high
status or high economic value since the merchants of
Middle Lithuania did not mediate between the locals
and the Romans in amber export” (16). The author
demonstrates a poor understanding of the end of the
Old Iron Age. Though the merchants of Middle Lithuania
did not mediate between the locals and the Romans,
archeological finds comprise spectacular collections
of enamelled and glass beads, imported fibulae and,
most importantly, a very rare sample of imported
bronze jug. However, there is no or little amber, and
the further from the sea, the less amber is found in
the burial monuments of the Old Iron Age. But in the
burial monuments of the Old Iron Age only! This
pattern, however, does not apply to the Middle Iron
Age. Why? In the Old Iron Age a high demand of amber
in the Roman Empire made amber a highly expensive good
in the amber source metropolis itself. Not without
reason, amber was combined with imported enamelled and
glass beads to decorate necklaces. With the fall of
the Roman Empire, already from the second half of the
5th century A. D. we observe an increase of amber
objects in all Lithuanian burial monuments. Therefore,
it is not by chance that considerable quantities of
amber are found in the above-mentioned cemetry at
Plinkaigalis in Middle Lithuania. R. V. Sidrys also
notes that “the statistical subordination between
amber and rich graves was confirmed in Dauglaukis, as
opposed to Vidgiriai which was outstanding in amber.”
(17). Compared are two burial monuments which are
incomparable by definition. The cemetry of Dauglaukis
dates to the period 70-260 A. D. whereas the early
cemetries of Vidgiriai date 450 years later. If the
author had treated amber as a “high-ranking” good,
it would have been obvious that with the decline of
the “Amber route”, amber became more available to
the Baltic tribes themselves.
Amber beads-amulets (18)
were located in twenty graves in Dauglaukis. Most of
them were found in men's graves, and only some were
unearthed in women's and girls' graves. In our
literature there are no comprehensive studies made on
the nature of amber beads-amulets. We can only assume
that these amulets are trully genuine. In men's graves
they are usually found in the neck area. They must
have been hung on a string and worn round the neck. P.
K. Tacitus makes a mention of amulets worn by the
Aistians. It is true, though, that these were
boar-shaped figurines or boar masks which “...
protected them, and ensured the safety of the
worshipper even among his enemies.” (4, 19). An
interesting find also comes from men's grave 82
(Illus. 4). It is composed from brass spirals, an
antropomorphic brass pendant and one amber bead.
Perhaps it was not by chance that amber was coupled
with a human-face-shaped pendant?
The women of the
Dauglaukis community also wore amber to decorate
sashes which supported their hair (Illus. 5). Such
ornaments come from four graves (20). Women used
sashes, made from woollen cloth or leather, to
underlie their hair, and on the back of the head would
attach an ornament composed from brass spirals
separated by big pieces of amber. It should be added
that such finds have no equivalents in the assortment
of women's head-dress decorations dated to the Old
Iron Age.
Amber pendants are
extremely scarce in Dauglaukis. They were accidentally
excavated in three graves (21). Grave 63 possessed a
necklace which had amber as both 1) a component used
together with enamelled and glass beads, and 2) as a
pendant (Illus. 6). Amber pendants can vary in form.
They can be drop-shaped (grave 70), rectangular (grave
79), “wooden mortar-shaped”, etc.
Beside two Roman coins,
an amazing article was found in woman's grave 55. It
resembles a modern-day thread spool or a fly-wheel. It
is the only such find out of all Lithuanian burial
monuments dating to the Old Iron Age, and it is hard
to say what purpose it served. It might have been a
woman's tool used for spinning. Grave 6 was equipped
with an amber spindle. Grave 34 deserves a mention,
too. It contained three little pieces of raw amber
(Ilius. 7).
The burial grounds of
Dauglaukis have revealed a wide range of amber usage
in the Baltic household. The finds encompass
ornaments, items of religious purpose, tools for
labour. With its origins in the Neolithic Age, amber
tradition was developed in the Old Iron Age.
References
1. K. Majewski. Importy
rzymskie na ziemiach slowianskich. - Wroclaw. - 1949;
K. Majewski. Importy rzymskie w Polsce. -
Warszawa-Wroclaw. - 1960; M. Michelbertas. Prekybiniai
rysiai su Romos imperija // Lietuvos gyventoju
prekybiniai rysiai I-XIII a. - Vilnius. - 1972; M.
Gimbutiene. Baltai priesistoriniais laikais. -
Vilnius. - 1985; M. Michelbertas. Senasis gelezies
amzius Lietuvoje. - Vilnius. - 1986.
2. M. Heltzer. The “Idol
from Sernai” and the question of Bronze Age amber
provenance in the eastern Mediterranean //
Archaeologia Baltica. - Vilnius. - 1995.
3. Publijus Kornelijus
Tacitas. Germanija. // Rinktiniai rastai. - Vilnius. -
1972.
4. M. Gimbutas. The
Balts. - London. - 1963.
5. VI. Katinas. Baltijos
gintaras. - Vilnius. - 1983.
6. J. Wielowiejski. Der
Forschungsstand uber den Hauptweg der Bernsteinstrabe
// Kontakte langs der Bernsteinstrabe (zwischen Caput
Adriae und den Ostseegebieten) in der Zeit um Christi
Geburt. - Krakow. - 1996.
7. R. V. Sidrys. Vakaru
baltu gintaro ikapes gelezies amziuje. Klaipedos
miesto ir regiono archeologijos ir istorijos problemos
//Acta Historica Universitatis Klaipedensis II.-
Klaipeda.- 1994.; R. V. Sidrys. Gintaro ikapes senojo
ir viduriniojo gelezies amziaus kapuose // Vidurio
Lietuvos archeologija. - Vilnius. - 1994.
8. E. Jovaisa. Senojo
gelezies amziaus visuomenes strukturos atspindziai
baltu laidojimo paminkluose // Istorija. XXXV. -
Vilnius. - 1997.
9. M. Michelbertas.
Corpus der romischen Funde im europaischen Barbaricum.
Litauen. - Vilnius. - 2001.
10. E. Jovaisa. Senojo
gelezies amziaus visuomenes strukturos atspindziai
baltu laidojimo paminkluose // Istorija. XXXV. -
Vilnius. - 1997. - P. 22. - 3 il.
11. R. V. Sidrys. Vakaru
baltu gintaro ikapes gelezies amziuje. Klaipedos
miesto ir regiono archeologijos ir istorijos problemos
// Acta Historica Universitatis Klaipedensis II. -
Klaipeda. - 1994.
12. Graves Nr. 1, 8, 20,
34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 53, 55, 62, 63, 64, 70, 79, 82,
85, 89, 90, 93, 94, 95, 96, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106,
108, 109, 110, 113, 114, 116, 118, 119, 120, 123, 124,
127, 128.
13. Graves Nr. 1, 34,
36, 37, 39, 55, 63, 64, 82, 90, 93, 96, 105, 106, 109,
110, 113, 114, 120, 124.
14. Graves Nr. 1, 36,
37, 39, 62, 63, 64, 89, 90, 93, 96, 106, 109, 116.
15. V. Simenas. Nauji V
a. pab. - VI a. pr. Laidojimo paprociai Nemuno
zemupyje // Ikikrikscioniskosios Lietuvos kultura. -
Vilnius. - 1992.; V. Kazakevicius. Plinkaigalio
kapinynas // Lietuvos archeologija. 10. - Vilnius. -
1993.
16. R. V. Sidrys.
Gintaro ikapes senojo ir viduriniojo gelezies amziaus
kapuose // Vidurio Lietuvos archeologija.- Vilnius. -
1994.
17. R. V. Sidrys.
Gintaro ikapes senojo ir viduriniojo gelezies amziaus
kapuose // Vidurio Lietuvos archeologija. - Vilnius. -
1994.
18. Graves Nr. 20, 38,
53, 82, 85, 94, 95, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108, 113, 114,
118, 119, 120, 123, 127, 128.
19. Publijus Kornelijus
Tacitas. Germanija // Rinktiniai rastai. - Vilnius. -
1972.
20. Graves Nr. 36, 39,
110, 124.
21. Graves Nr. 63, 70,
79.
Prepared by: Jovaisa E.
The balts and the amber // Baltic Amber / edited by
Adomas Butrimas. - Vilnius: Publishing Office of
Vilnius Academy of Fine Arts, 2001. P. 149-156.
